Focus groups as qualitative research
In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the t styles and h dental ctthis paper explores the most common methods of data collection used in qualitative research: interviews and focus groups. The paper examines each method in detail, focusing on how they work in practice, when their use is appropriate and what they can offer dentistry. Examples of empirical studies that have used interviews or focus groups are also pointsinterviews and focus groups are the most common methods of data collection used in qualitative healthcare researchinterviews can be used to explore the views, experiences, beliefs and motivations of individual participantsfocus group use group dynamics to generate qualitative dataqualitative research in dentistryqualitative research in dentistrymethods of data collection in qualitative research: interviews and focus groupsconducting qualitative interviews with school children in dental researchanalysing and presenting qualitative dataintroductionhaving explored the nature and purpose of qualitative research in the previous paper, this paper explores methods of data collection used in qualitative research. There are a variety of methods of data collection in qualitative research, including observations, textual or visual analysis (eg from books or videos) and interviews (individual or group). However, the most common methods used, particularly in healthcare research, are interviews and focus groups. 3the purpose of this paper is to explore these two methods in more detail, in particular how they work in practice, the purpose of each, when their use is appropriate and what they can offer dental ative research interviewsthere are three fundamental types of research interviews: structured, semi-structured and unstructured. The flexibility of this approach, particularly compared to structured interviews, also allows for the discovery or elaboration of information that is important to participants but may not have previously been thought of as pertinent by the research example, in a recent dental public heath study,5 school children in cardiff, uk were interviewed about their food choices and preferences. And, therefore, may not have emerged in the same way, if at all, if asked as a predetermined purpose of research interviewsthe purpose of the research interview is to explore the views, experiences, beliefs and/or motivations of individuals on specific matters (eg factors that influence their attendance at the dentist). Qualitative methods, such as interviews, are believed to provide a 'deeper' understanding of social phenomena than would be obtained from purely quantitative methods, such as questionnaires. The study found that dentists' clinical decisions about treatments were not necessarily related to pathology or treatment options, as was perhaps initially thought, but also involved discussions with patients, patients' values and dentists' feelings of self esteem and are many similarities between clinical encounters and research interviews, in that both employ similar interpersonal skills, such as questioning, conversing and listening. In contrast, the fundamental purpose of the research interview is to listen attentively to what respondents have to say, in order to acquire more knowledge about the study topic. Unlike the clinical encounter, it is not to intentionally offer any form of help or advice, which many researchers have neither the training nor the time for.
Research interviewing therefore requires a different approach and a different range of interviewwhen designing an interview schedule it is imperative to ask questions that are likely to yield as much information about the study phenomenon as possible and also be able to address the aims and objectives of the research. In a qualitative interview, good questions should be open-ended (ie, require more than a yes/no answer), neutral, sensitive and understandable. This can help put respondents at ease, build up confidence and rapport and often generates rich data that subsequently develops the interview in any research, it is often wise to first pilot the interview schedule on several respondents prior to data collection proper. This allows the research team to establish if the schedule is clear, understandable and capable of answering the research questions, and if, therefore, any changes to the interview schedule are length of interviews varies depending on the topic, researcher and participant. Whilst researchers may have less control over the home environment, familiarity may help the respondent to relax and result in a more productive interview. However, to ensure that the interview is as productive as possible, researchers must possess a repertoire of skills and techniques to ensure that comprehensive and representative data are collected during the interview. 8focus groupsfocus groups share many common features with less structured interviews, but there is more to them than merely collecting similar data from many participants at once. A focus group is a group discussion on a particular topic organised for research purposes. This discussion is guided, monitored and recorded by a researcher (sometimes called a moderator or facilitator). 12focus groups were first used as a research method in market research, originating in the 1940s in the work of the bureau of applied social research at columbia university. Eventually the success of focus groups as a marketing tool in the private sector resulted in its use in public sector marketing, such as the assessment of the impact of health education campaigns. However, focus group techniques, as used in public and private sectors, have diverged over time.
Therefore, in this paper, we seek to describe focus groups as they are used in academic focus groups are usedfocus groups are used for generating information on collective views, and the meanings that lie behind those views. Suggested criteria for using focus groups include:13as a standalone method, for research relating to group norms, meanings and processesin a multi-method design, to explore a topic or collect group language or narratives to be used in later stagesto clarify, extend, qualify or challenge data collected through other methodsto feedback results to research 12 suggests that focus groups should be avoided according to the following criteria:if listening to participants' views generates expectations for the outcome of the research that can not be fulfilledif participants are uneasy with each other, and will therefore not discuss their feelings and opinions openlyif the topic of interest to the researcher is not a topic the participants can or wish to discussif statistical data is required. Focus groups give depth and insight, but cannot produce useful numerical ting focus groups: group composition and sizethe composition of a focus group needs great care to get the best quality of discussion. What is important is that the researcher gives due consideration to the impact of group mix (eg, how the group may interact with each other) before the focus group proceeds. Sometimes this means a pre-existing group interacts best for research purposes, and sometimes stranger groups. Pre-existing groups may be easier to recruit, have shared experiences and enjoy a comfort and familiarity which facilitates discussion or the ability to challenge each other comfortably. In health settings, pre-existing groups can overcome issues relating to disclosure of potentially stigmatising status which people may find uncomfortable in stranger groups (conversely there may be situations where disclosure is more comfortable in stranger groups). In other research projects it may be decided that stranger groups will be able to speak more freely without fear of repercussion, and challenges to other participants may be more challenging and probing, leading to richer data. Stewart and shamdasani14 suggest that it is better to slightly over-recruit for a focus group and potentially manage a slightly larger group, than under-recruit and risk having to cancel the session or having an unsatisfactory discussion. The optimum size for a focus group is six to eight participants (excluding researchers), but focus groups can work successfully with as few as three and as many as 14 participants. Small groups risk limited discussion occurring, while large groups can be chaotic, hard to manage for the moderator and frustrating for participants who feel they get insufficient opportunities to speak. An interview schedulelike research interviews, the interview schedule for focus groups is often no more structured than a loose schedule of topics to be discussed.
However, in preparing an interview schedule for focus groups, stewart and shamdasani14 suggest two general principles:questions should move from general to more specific questionsquestion order should be relative to importance of issues in the research can, however, be some conflict between these two principles, and trade offs are often needed, although often discussions will take on a life of their own, which will influence or determine the order in which issues are covered. Usually, less than a dozen predetermined questions are needed and, as with research interviews, the researcher will also probe and expand on issues according to the tingmoderating a focus group looks easy when done well, but requires a complex set of skills, which are related to the following principles:15participants have valuable views and the ability to respond actively, positively and respectfully. Expressing one's own views tends to give participants cues as to what to say (introducing bias), rather than the confidence to be open and honest about their own viewsbe prepared for views that may be unpalatably critical of a topic which may be important to youit is important to recognise that researchers' individual characteristics mean that no one person will always be suitable to moderate any kind of group. If the moderator is comfortable and natural, participants will feel moderator should facilitate group discussion, keeping it focussed without leading it. Relevant factorsthe venue for a focus group is important and should, ideally, be accessible, comfortable, private, quiet and free from distractions. For example, in a school setting, pupils may behave like pupils, and in clinical settings, participants may be affected by any anxieties that affect them when they attend in a patient groups are usually recorded, often observed (by a researcher other than the moderator, whose role is to observe the interaction of the group to enhance analysis) and sometimes videotaped. At the start of a focus group, a moderator should acknowledge the presence of the audio recording equipment, assure participants of confidentiality and give people the opportunity to withdraw if they are uncomfortable with being taped. Good quality multi-directional external microphone is recommended for the recording of focus groups, as internal microphones are rarely good enough to cope with the variation in volume of different speakers. This is, therefore, very obtrusive, which can affect the spontaneity of the group and in a focus group does not usually yield enough additional information that could not be captured by an observer to make videotaping worthwhile. However, the transcription of focus groups is more complex and time consuming than in one-to-one interviews, and each hour of audio can take up to eight hours to transcribe and generate approximately 100 pages of text. Sometimes observational notes also need to be described in the transcripts in order for them to make analysis of qualitative data is explored in the final paper of this series. However, it is important to note that the analysis of focus group data is different from other qualitative data because of their interactive nature, and this needs to be taken into consideration during analysis.
The analysis of focus group data must therefore take account of the group dynamics that have generated groups in dental researchfocus groups are used increasingly in dental research, on a diverse range of topics,16 illuminating a number of areas relating to patients, dental services and the dental profession. Used focus groups to investigate the oral health-related attitudes of drug users, exploring the priorities, understandings and barriers to care they encounter. Used focus groups to explore barriers to services among minority ethnic groups, highlighting for the first time differences between minority ethnic groups. Demonstrating the use of the method with professional groups as subjects in dental research, gussy et al. This mixed method study was very important as the qualitative element was able to explain why the clinical trial failed, and this understanding may help researchers improve on the quantitative aspect of future studies, as well as making a valuable academic contribution in its own sioninterviews and focus groups remain the most common methods of data collection in qualitative research, and are now being used with increasing frequency in dental research, particularly to access areas not amendable to quantitative methods and/or where depth, insight and understanding of particular phenomena are required. The examples of dental studies that have employed these methods also help to demonstrate the range of research contexts to which interview and focus group research can make a useful contribution. In ritchie j, lewis j (eds) qualitative research practice: a guide for social science students and researchers. An exploratory qualitative study examining the social and psychological processes involved in regular dental attendance. Barriers to the use of dental services by individuals from minority ethnic communities living in the united kingdom: findings from focus groups. A qualitative study exploring barriers to a model of shared care for pre-school children's oral health. Br dent j 2006; 201: 165–medarticledownload referencesauthor informationaffiliationssenior research fellow, faculty of health, sport and science, university of glamorgan, pontypridd, cf37 1dlp. Ed e toolspdfshare on facebookshare on twittertoolstoolspdfrights & permissionsprintsharetwitterfacebookdigggoogle+ > home page > focus groups are a data collection method.
Focus groups are generally used to collect data on a specific group methods emerged in the 1940s with the work of merton and fiske who used focus groups to conduct audience teristics of focus design of focus group research will vary based on the research question being studied. Below, we highlight some general principles to consider:Standardization of questions -- focus groups can vary in the extent to which they follow a structured protocol or permit discussion to of focus groups conducted - or sampling will depend on the 'segmentation' or different stratifications (e. Age, sex, socioeconomic status, health status) that the researcher identifies as important to the research of participants per group - the rule of thumb has been 6-10 homogeneous strangers, but as morgan (1996) points out there may be reasons to have smaller or slightly larger of moderator involvement - can vary from high to low degree of control exercised during focus groups (e. Focus groups might be groups may be used:To explore new research explore a topic that is difficult to observe (not easy to gain access). Explore sensitive you want to collect a concentrated set of observations in a short time acertain perspectives and experiences from people on a topic, particularly when these are people who might otherwise be combination with other methods, focus groups might be used to:Gather preliminary in the development of surveys and interview y research findings from another ing focus group of the challenges in recording focus group data is knowing who is speaking at any particular time, since often multiple people speak in er audio- or video-recording focus group sessions (or even both). Recordings also provide access to nuances of the discussion and the abilility to replay sessions during ribe focus group a least 2-3 researchers (in addition to the moderator) attend the focus group and take notes. Even if one is video-recording a group, some nonverbal behavior will be lost that might be recorded by a y to produce a large amount of data on a topic in a short to topics that might be otherwise insure that data directly targets researcher's e access to comparisons that focus group participants make between their experiences. An analysis of the effectiveness of focus groups as a method of qualitative data collection with chinese populations in nursing research. Group interviews in primary care research: advancing the state of the art of ritualized research? Focus groups as a research method: a critique of some aspects of their use in nursing research. July sting finds updated cs & social groups as qualitative research and over one million other books are available for amazon your mobile number or email address below and we'll send you a link to download the free kindle app. Then you can start reading kindle books on your smartphone, tablet, or computer - no kindle device get the free app, enter your mobile phone ad to your s 8, 8 rt and modern s 8 desktop, windows 7, xp & instantly in your groups as qualitative research (qualitative research methods).
Used & new from $ all buying extensively revised edition of the best-selling focus groups as qualitative research continues to provide an excellent guide for researchers across the disciplines. Reflecting the many changes that have occurred in the study of focus groups in recent years, the book begins with an updated introduction offering a discussion of current social science approaches to focus groups. Expanded coverage on the comparison of focus groups to individual interviews follows, and there is more material on the strengths and weaknesses of focus groups. Subsequent chapters have been revised to include examples from social scientists who have established their own practices and methodological research on focus groups. In conclusion, the author offers future directions and references that take into account the explosive growth of focus groups as a research tool for all social amazon book interviews, book reviews, editors picks, and all buying groups as qualitative research (qualitative research methods). Morgan has published research articles in numerous behavioral journals, and has taught research methodology courses at both the undergraduate and graduate level at several institutions, including spalding university. Reading focus groups as qualitative research on your kindle in under a 't have a kindle? Some paragraphs were golden to me as for example the topic on segmentation, but the best were the criteria to organize the full focus group exercise and the full rationale behind it. Out of 5 starsessential for the focus group researcherbydr kat gallagheron july 13, 2011format: paperback|verified purchasethis book was invaluable as i worked on a research project. It provides not only an overview of focus groups as a research methodology, but provides comparisons of other qualitative methods, setting up and utilizing focus groups, and analyzing data. It is truly a must-have for those who want to use a focus group methodology for research in the social more0comment|. Out of 5 starsgreat as an introductionbykikopron june 1, 2011format: paperback|verified purchasethis is a great book if you are looking for an introduction to focus group.
However, if you're looking for methodology and design of focus groups this is not your more0comment|. Out of 5 starsfive starsbyashly pinningtonon october 29, 2014format: paperback|verified purchasethis book remains an excellent introduction to research methods in the area of focus more0comment|was this review helpful to you? Out of 5 starsfocus groupsthis book was suggested by my advisor for reference while finishing my dissertation. Out of 5 starsbest book i've read on focus groupsthis was the most helpful book i read on focus groups and helped me survive my dissertation. Out of 5 starsgood overview, the cliffs notes versioni needed a quick over view about focus groups for a project. Out of 5 starsinstructive and helpfuldata collected from focus groups provide information that would otherwise be unknown. Groups: a practical guide for applied ative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. As qualitative research: a guide for researchers in education and the social sciences, fourth 's a problem loading this menu right more about amazon fast, free shipping with amazon members enjoy free two-day shipping and exclusive access to music, movies, tv shows, original audio series, and kindle recently viewed items and featured or edit your browsing viewing product detail pages, look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages you are interested recently viewed items and featured or edit your browsing viewing product detail pages, look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages you are interested with related and discover other items: academic research, research methods and music stream millions of drive cloud storage from amazon. Focus group is a small, but demographically diverse group of people whose reactions are studied especially in market research or political analysis in guided or open discussions about a new product or something else to determine the reactions that can be expected from a larger population. 1][2][3] it is a form of qualitative research consisting of interviews in which a group of people are asked about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs, and attitudes towards a product, service, concept, advertisement, idea, or packaging. During this process, the researcher either takes notes or records the vital points he or she is getting from the group. Merton set up focus groups at the bureau of applied social research in the usa prior to 1976.
5] psychologist and marketing expert ernest dichter coined the term "focus group" itself before his death in 1991. The world of marketing, focus groups are seen as an important tool for acquiring feedback regarding new products, as well as various other topics. In marketing, focus groups are usually used in the early stages of product or concept development, when organizations are trying to create an overall direction for marketing initiative. In particular, focus groups allow companies wishing to develop, package, name, or test market a new product, to discuss, view, and/or test the new product before it is made available to the public. Focus group is an interview, conducted by a trained moderator among a small group of respondents. The moderator uses a discussion guide that has been prepared in advance of the focus group to guide the discussion. Of the stake holder (often a design team in the case of testing acceptance on a new product) are not involved in the focus group, not to bias the exercise. However they may attend the focus group, either through video cameras, or by watching through a one way ional focus groups can provide accurate information, and are less expensive than other forms of traditional marketing research. Additionally, the site of a traditional focus group may or may not be in a locale convenient to a specific client, so client representatives may have to incur travel and lodging expenses as , using audience response keypads to collect questionnaire answers is the new industry trend. Usability engineering, a focus group is a survey method to collect the views of users on software or a website. Unlike other methods of ergonomics, focus group implies several participants: users or future users of the application. The focus group can only collect subjective data, not objective data on the use of the application as the usability test for ts of focus groups include:Two-way focus group - one focus group watches another focus group and discusses the observed interactions and moderator focus group - one moderator ensures the session progresses smoothly, while another ensures that all the topics are g moderator focus group (fencing-moderator) - two moderators deliberately take opposite sides on the issue under dent moderator focus group - one and only one of the respondents is asked to act as the moderator participant focus groups - one or more client representatives participate in the discussion, either covertly or focus groups - groups are composed of four or five members rather than 6 to nference focus groups - telephone network is focus groups - computers connected via the internet are discussion produces data and insights that would be less accessible without interaction found in a group setting—listening to others’ verbalized experiences stimulates memories, ideas, and experiences in participants.
This enables the capture of a form of "native language" or "vernacular speech" to understand the groups also provide an opportunity for disclosure among similar others in a setting where participants are validated. Use of focus groups to study workplace bullying therefore serve as both an efficacious and ethical venue for collecting data (see, e. Fundamental difficulty with focus groups (and other forms of qualitative research) is the issue of observer dependency: the results obtained are influenced by the researcher or his or her own reading of the group's discussion, raising questions of validity (see experimenter's bias). Focus groups are "one shot case studies" especially if they are measuring a property-disposition relationship within the social sciences, unless they are repeated. 11] focus groups can create severe issues of external validity, especially the reactive effects of the testing arrangement. If the focus groups are held in a laboratory setting with a moderator who is a professor and the recording instrument is obtrusive, the participants may either hold back on their responses and/or try to answer the moderator's questions with answers the participants feel that the moderator wants to hear. With all of the other participants, there can not be any guarantee of s rushkoff[13] argues that focus groups are often useless, and frequently cause more trouble than they are intended to solve, with focus groups often aiming to please rather than offering their own opinions or evaluations, and with data often cherry picked to support a foregone conclusion. Rushkoff cites the disastrous introduction of new coke in the 1980s as a vivid example of focus group analysis gone an ive, apple’s senior vice president of industrial design, also said that apple had found a good reason not to do focus groups: "they just ensure that you don’t offend anyone, and produce bland inoffensive products. Analysis of focus group data presents both challenges and opportunities when compared to other types of qualitative data. Some authors[14] have suggested that data should be analysed in the same manner as interview data, while others have suggested that the unique features of focus group data – particularly the opportunity that it provides to observe interactions between group members - means that distinctive forms of analysis should be used. Bringing together all the comments that an individual makes in order can enable the researcher to determine whether their view changes in the course of discussion and, if so, further examination of the transcript may reveal which contributions by other focus group members brought about the the collective level, focus group data can sometimes reveal shared understandings or common views. However, there is a danger that a consensus can be assumed when not every person has spoken: the researcher will need to consider carefully whether the people who have not expressed a view can be assumed to agree with the majority, or whether they may simply be unwilling to voice their disagreement.
United states federal government makes extensive use of focus groups to assess public education materials and messages for their many programs. While many of these are appropriate for the purpose, many others are reluctant compromises which federal officials have had to make as a result of studies independent of whether a focus group is the best or even appropriate methodology. Artist måns wrange has used the concept of the focus group in his work the good rumor project. 17] in this instance the focus group situation is used not only as a means to investigate the opinions of the group members, but also to spread an idea (the rumor) across society with the help of the group s creative activity-oriented questions can serve as supplements to verbal questions including but not limited to the following: [18]. Listings- participants produce a list of all elements of a - participants have a list of items which must be rated on a scale, typically using a numbers or g- participants can either receive a list of items to rank according to a specified dimension or participants can combine items in pairs to compare elements in the sorting- participants sort cards representing elements of a domain into piles according to their similarities and e sort- participants are distributed selected pictures from magazines or photographs to sort through, finding matches of a definite characteristic or that best represent a certain tools and fantasy- the moderator can literally or symbolically pass around a "magical" tool to each participant as he or she shares a fantasy, dream, or elling- participants create a narrative around the topic of interest to make others think about a solution to a problem, gauge reactions to a situation, and observe attitudes towards the topic under -playing- participants demonstrate through action how they would behave or act in a situation, how they would solve a problem, or deal with a ce completion- participants are given printed out partial sentences on a topic to complete and share within a e- a moderator assigns a theme and then distributes print materials to participants (who are divided into small groups), so they can use these materials, drawings, and their own words to create a relevant collage == exercises == various creative activity-oriented questions can serve as supplements to verbal questions including but not limited to the following:Free listings- participants produce a list of all elements of a - participants have a list of items which must be rated on a scale, typically using a numbers or g- participants can either receive a list of items to rank according to a specified dimension or participants can combine items in pairs to compare elements in the sorting- participants sort cards representing elements of a domain into piles according to their similarities and e sort- participants are distributed selected pictures from magazines or photographs to sort through, finding matches of a definite characteristic or that best represent a certain tools and fantasy- the moderator can literally or symbolically pass around a "magical" tool to each participant as he or she shares a fantasy, dream, or elling- participants create a narrative around the topic of interest to make others think about a solution to a problem, gauge reactions to a situation, and observe attitudes towards the topic under -playing- participants demonstrate through action how they would behave or act in a situation, how they would solve a problem, or deal with a ce completion- participants are given printed out partial sentences on a topic to complete and share within a e- a moderator assigns a theme and then distributes print materials to participants (who are divided into small groups), so they can use these materials, drawings, and their own words to create a relevant ison of usability evaluation rise feedback management (efm). Focus groups have a long history and were used during the second world war to examine the effectiveness of propaganda (merton and kendall, 1946). 17(10): 1422– groups at group principles (archived) american marketing and don'ts for using marketing focus groups (archived) ries: market researchbusiness intelligencequalitative researchhuman–computer interactionhidden categories: articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from may 2016all articles with unsourced statementsarticles with unsourced statements from february 2015articles with unsourced statements from february logged intalkcontributionscreate accountlog pagecontentsfeatured contentcurrent eventsrandom articledonate to wikipediawikipedia out wikipediacommunity portalrecent changescontact links hererelated changesupload filespecial pagespermanent linkpage informationwikidata itemcite this a bookdownload as pdfprintable version.
