Qualitative research analysis methods
Related slideshares at ative data n nigatu haregu, phd hed on mar 6, presentation summarizes qualitative data analysis methods in a brief manner. Read and use for your qualitative you sure you want message goes professional training year tutor faculty of arts and human sciences at university of surrey & doctoral useful thank you so much for you sure you want message goes you sure you want message goes er, university of technology and education, ho chi minh city, viet presentation is definitely helpful for my knowledge of conducting a qualitative research project. Val tivani ial advisor at philam life and general insurance life and general insurance aia group ative data e of the presentationqualitative researchqualitative dataqualitative analysisqualitative softwarequalitative reporting ative research is qualitative research? Pope & mays bmj 1995;311:42-45 ions of qualitative methodsunderstanding context• how economic, political, social, cultural, environmental and organizational factors influence healthunderstanding people• how people make sense of their experiences of health and diseaseunderstanding interaction• how the various actors involved in different public health activities interact each other vs quan: basic differences qualitative quantitativepurpose to describe a situation, to measure magnitude-how gain insight to particular widespread is a practice... No pre-determined pre-determined response response categories categories, standard measuresdata in-depth explanatory data wide breadth of data from large from a small sample statistically representative sampleanalysis draws out patterns from tests hypotheses, uses data to concepts and insights support conclusionresult illustrative explanation & numerical aggregation in individual responses summaries, responses are clusteredsampling theoretical statistical vs quan: analytic approaches quantitative qualitativeresearch question fixed/focused broader, contextual, flexibleexpected outcome identified in usually not predefined, advance emergent research questionhierarchy of phases linearity circularconfounding factors controlled during searched in the field design & analysistime dimension slower rapid to slower vs quan: data collection method quantitative qualitativesampling random sampling open ended and less structured protocols (flexible)tools structured data depend on interactive collection instruments interviewsresults produce results that produce results that give generalize, compare and meaning, experience and views summarize for combining qual-quan methods qual-quan combining models sequential use model concurrent use modelqual-quan quan-qual quan qual quan qual model model model model ant concepts in designing qualitative researchconcept descriptionnatural setting participants are free from any control & data are collected in their natural environmentholism the whole is more than the sum, take magnitude of contextual factors in to accounthuman as a researcher is involved in every step being responsive,research flexible, adaptive and good listenerinstrumentemergent design study design emerges as further insights are gained through data collection and analysissaturation or a stage where additional interview or observation is notredundancy believed to add new information-enough is enough! Qualitative study designsstudy design descriptionethnography portrait of people- study of the story and culture of a group usually to develop cultural awareness & sensitivityphenomenology study of individual’s lived experiences of events-e. The experience of aids caregrounded theory going beyond adding to the existing body of knowledge-developing a new theory about a phenomenon-theory grounded on dataparticipatory action individuals & groups researching their own personalresearch beings, socio-cultural settings and experiencescase study in-depth investigation of a single or small number of units at a point (over a period) in time. Evaluation of s service ng in qualitative research • to generate a sample which allows understanding the social process aim of interest • purposive sampling- selection of the most productive sample to answer the research questiontechnique • ongoing interpretation of data will indicate who should be approached, including identification of missing voices • the one that adequately answers the research question-until new size categories, themes or explanations stop emerging from the data • depend on available time and resources ng techniques in qualitative research snow ball/chain extreme/deviant homogeneous sampling case sampling sampling maximum convenience opportunistic variation sampling sampling sampling ative data of qualitative datastructured text, (writings, stories, survey comments,news articles, books etc)unstructured text (transcription, interviews, focusgroups, conversation)audio recordings, musicvideo recordings (graphics, art, pictures, visuals). Data collection methodsmethods brief explanationobservation the researcher gets close enough to study subjects to observe (with/without participation) usually to understand whether people do what they say they do, and to access tacit knowledge of subjectsinterview this involves asking questions, listening to and recording answers from an individual or group on a structured, semi-structured or unstructured format in an in-depth mannerfocus group focused (guided by a set of questions) and interactivediscussion session with a group small enough for everyone to have chance to talk and large enough to provide diversity of opinionsother methods rapid assessment procedure (rap), free listing, pile sort, ranking, life history (biography) ons for qualitative interviewstypes of examplesquestionshypothetical if you get the chance to be an hiv scientist, do you think you can discover a vaccine for hiv? Of qualitative questions• experience: when you told your manager that the project has failed, what happened? Ing transcripttranscribe word by word (verbatim)consider non-verbal expressionstry to do the transcribing yourselfbe patient-time consuming ing metadata(log)project/research titledate of data collectionplace of data collectionid-code of informant(s)research teammethod of data collectiondocumentation type: tape recorder, notesand observations ative analysis is qualitative data analysis? Data analysis (qda) is the range ofprocesses and procedures whereby we move from thequalitative data that have been collected into some formof explanation, understanding or interpretation of thepeople and situations we are is usually based on an interpretative idea is to examine the meaningful and symboliccontent of qualitative data http:///intro_qda/what_is_ ches in analysisdeductive approach – using your research questions to group the data and then look for similarities and differences – used when time and resources are limited – used when qualitative research is a smaller component of a larger quantitative studyinductive approach – used when qualitative research is a major design of the inquiry – using emergent framework to group the data and then look for relationships ative vs quantitative data analysisqualitative quantitative• begins with more general • key explanatory and open-ended questions, outcome variables moving toward greater identified in advance precision as more • contextual/confounding information emerges variables identified and• pre-defined variables are controlled not identified in advance • data collection and• preliminary analysis is an analysis distinctly inherent part of data separate phases collection • analysis use formal statistical procedures for helping the analytical processsummaries: should contain the key points thatemerge from undertaking the specific activityself memos: allow you to make a record of theideas which occur to you about any aspect ofyour research, as you think of themresearcher used in qualitative data analysistheory: a set of interrelated concepts, definitions and propositionsthat presents a systematic view of events or situations by specifyingrelations among variablesthemes: idea categories that emerge from grouping of lower-leveldata pointscharacteristic: a single item or event in a text, similar to anindividual response to a variable or indicator in a quantitativeresearch. It is the smallest unit of analysiscoding: the process of attaching labels to lines of text so that theresearcher can group and compare similar or related pieces ofinformationcoding sorts: compilation of similarly coded blocks of text fromdifferent sources in to a single file or reportindexing: process that generates a word list comprising all thesubstantive words and their location within the texts entered in to aprogram ples of qualitative data analysis1. Exceptional cases may yield insights in to a problem or new idea for further inquiry es of qualitative data analysis• analysis is circular and non-linear• iterative and progressive• close interaction with the data• data collection and analysis is simultaneous• level of analysis varies• uses inflection i. This was good”• can be sorted in many ways• qualitative data by itself has meaning, i. Apple” ng, collecting and thinking model think collect about things things notice things process of qualitative data analysisstep 1: organize the datastep 2: identify frameworkstep 3: sort data in to frameworkstep 4: use the framework for descriptive analysisstep 5: second order analysis 2: identify a framework• read, read, read... Identify a framework – explanatory – guided by the research question – exploratory-guided by the data• framework will structure, label and define data• framework=coding plan 3: sort data in to framework• code the data• modify the framework• data entry if use computer packages http:///intro_qda/how_what_to_ 4: use framework in descriptive analysis• descriptive analysis – range of responses in categories – identify recurrent themesstop here if exploratory research 5: second order analysis• identify recurrent themes• notice patterns in the data• identify respondent clusters – search for causality – identify related themes• build sequence of events• search data to answer research questions• develop hypothesis and test of qualitative analysis• content analysis• narrative analysis• discourse analysis• framework analysis• grounded theory http:/// t analysis• content analysis is the procedure for the categorization of verbal or behavioural data for the purpose of classification, summarization and tabulation• the content can be analyzed on two levels – descriptive: what is the data? Http:///guides/research/content/ ive analysis• narratives are transcribed experiences• every interview/observation has narrative aspect-the researcher has to sort-out and reflect up on them, enhance them, and present them in a revised shape to the reader• the core activity in narrative analysis is to reformulate stories presented by people in different contexts and based on their different experiences http:///garson/pa765/ gies for analyzing observations• chronology: describe what was observed chronologically overtime, to tell the story from the beginning to the end• key events: describing critical incidents or major events, not necessarily in order of occurrence but in order of importance• various settings: describe various places, sites, settings, or locations in which events/behaviours of interest happen• people: describing individuals or groups involved in the events• process: describing important processes (e. Control, recruitment, decision-making, socialization, communication)• issues: illuminating key issues – how did participants change y in qualitative studiescriteria issues solutioncredibility truth value prolonged & persistent observation,(=internal validity) triangulation, peer-debriefing, member checks, deviant case analysistransferability applicability thick description, referential adequacy,(=external validity) prevention of premature closure of the data, reflexive journaldependability consistency dependability audit(=reliability) reflexive journalconformability neutrality conformability audit(=objectivity) reflexive journal http:///intro_qda/qualitative_ ative software ng and using computer software• it is possible to conduct qualitative analysis without a computer• concerns: relying too much on computers shortcuts will impede the process by distancing the researcher from the text• advantages: ease the burden of cutting and pasting by hand, and produce more powerful analysis by creation and insertion of codes in to text files, indexing, construction of hyperlinks, and selective retrieval of text segments ative analysis with softwares• with qualitative softwares, your workflow will be similar, but each step will be made easier by the computer’s capability for data storage, automated searching and display.
You can use text, picture, audio and video source files directly• you can assign codes manually (autocode) to any section of text, audio or video or part of a picture• analysis is easy with the report feature, where you can select a subset of cases and codes to work with, choose what data to use, and sort your reports automatically http:/// of computer software in qualitative studies1) transcribing data2) writing/editing the data3) storage of data4) coding data (keywords or tags)5) search and retrieval of data6) data linking of related text7) writing/editing memos about the data8) display of selected reduced data9) graphic mapping10) preparing reports http:///intro_caqdas/what_the_sw_can_ to choose software - key questionstype and amount of datatheoretical approach to analysistime to learn vs time to analyzelevel of analysis (simple or detailed)desired “closeness” to the dataany desired quantification of resultsindividual or working as a teampeer software support availableany cost constraints (weitzman and miles 1995; lewins and silver 2005). G a qualitative report g qualitative reportqualitative research generates rich information- thus deciding where to focus and the level of sharing is very challenging. Http:///michael/qual_ g ready to write• must come close to the point of maturation – be aware of resource constraints and sponsors interests• organize your materials – list of codes – summary device: tables, thematic structure• writing a chronicle (“writing it out of your head”) ng a style and focus• format • research report • scientific research article • report to donor • field report • evaluation report... Focus – academic: conceptual framework/theories, methodology and interpretation – practitioners: concrete suggestions for better practice, policy recommendations – lay readers: problem solving, reform on practice/policy ions in the report format• problem-solving approach (problem-based)• narrative approach (chronological)• policy approach (evidence-based)• analytic approach (theory/conceptual framework based) ing qualitative research• typically use quotes from data – descriptive – direct link with data – credibility• ways to use quotes – illustrative – range of issues – opposing views ing without quotes• list range of issues• rank or sequence issues• describe types of behaviour, strategies, experiences• report proportions (most, many, the majority)• flow diagrams: decision-making, event sequencing etc retation• interpretation is the act of identifying and explaining the core meaning of the data• organizing and connecting emerging themes, sub-themes and contradictions to get the bigger picture-what it all means – think how best to integrate data from multiple sources and methods• make generalization-providing answers to questions of social and theoretical significance• ensuring credible or trustworthy interpretations rd report format1. References ic research foundations: course - linkedin oint 2016: course - linkedin neuroscience of course - linkedin tative data ative data analysis (steps). You should still be able to navigate through these materials but selftest questions will not 9 : introduction to 1: introduction to 2 research and the voluntary and community 3 primary and secondary 4 research 5 quantitative 6 qualitative 7 ethics and data 8 presenting and using research findings. Analysing qualitative research analysis of qualitative research involves aiming to uncover and / or understand the big picture - by using the data to describe the phenomenon and what this means. Both qualitative and quantitative analysis involves labelling and coding all of the data in order that similarities and differences can be recognised. Responses from even an unstructured qualitative interview can be entered into a computer in order for it to be coded, counted and analysed. The qualitative researcher, however, has no system for pre-coding, therefore a method of identifying and labelling or coding data needs to be developed that is bespoke for each research. Which is called content t analysis can be used when qualitative data has been collected through:Content analysis is '... This is what was said, but no comments or theories as to why or level or latent level of analysis: a more interpretive analysis that is concerned with the response as well as what may have been inferred or t analysis involves coding and classifying data, also referred to as categorising and indexing and the aim of context analysis is to make sense of the data collected and to highlight the important messages, features or with wimba ing qualitative skillsyouneed:A - z list of learning skills. Types of learning tanding your preferences to aid al thinking al thinking and fake g a dissertation or uction to research tative and qualitative research ative research iews for ative data from tative research ng and sample s and survey ational research and secondary ing research ing qualitative statistical tical analysis: identifying ariate our new research methods of the skills you need guide for ng, coaching, mentoring and ability skills for ibe to our free newsletter and start improving your life in just 5 minutes a 'll get our 5 free 'one minute life skills' and our weekly 'll never share your email address and you can unsubscribe at any ing qualitative also: an introduction to research pages on quantitative and qualitative data and collecting qualitative data explain the various methods of collecting data. It will depend on the philosophy, and also on your own skills and s for analysis of qualitative data involving , the output from qualitative research will be in the form of example, you may have collected data from or in written texts, or through in-depth interviews or transcripts of meetings. According to easterby-smith, thorpe and jackson, in their book management research, there are six main systems of analysis for language-based data, which may also be used for other types of , you start with some ideas about hypotheses or themes that might emerge, and look for them in the data that you have collected. In practice, this may be much harder to achieve because it requires you to put aside what you have read and simply concentrate on the people, such as myers-briggs 'p' types, may find this form of analysis much easier to achieve than others. However, if more information emerges from the data that does not fit with the pre-identified themes, you may want to update and adapt your themes in the course of the research. Social network form of analysis examines the links between individuals as a way of understanding what motivates has been used, for example, as a way of understanding why some people are more successful at work than others, and why some children were more likely to run away from home. This type of analysis may be most useful in combination with other methods, for example after some kind of content or grounded analysis to identify common themes about relationships.
It’s often helpful to use a visual approach to this kind of analysis to generate a network diagram showing the relationships between members of a network. It may also include analysis of written sources, such as emails or letters, and body language to give a rich source of data surrounding the actual words used. It also assumes that what is said can only be understood by looking at what went before and sation analysis requires a detailed examination of the data, including exactly which words are used, in what order, whether speakers overlap their speech, and where the emphasis is placed. There are therefore detailed conventions used in transcribing for conversation content and grounded analysis, discourse, narrative and conversation analysis can be considered as on a spectrum of systems for analysing forms of language. Which you use will depend on what you want to achieve from the er-aided are many computer packages designed to support and assist with the analysis of qualitative (language-based) data, these include nvivo, and the like. Their use is beyond the scope of this page, but they are widely used to analyse large quantities of data, reducing the pressure on a researcher to read and code everything him- or you think that your research might need to use a package of this type, you are probably best discussing it with your supervisor or a colleague who has experience of using the package and can advise you about its page is necessarily only a brief summary of the techniques that can be used to analyse language-based qualitative data. It is likely to be sufficient to give you an idea of whether the technique will be r, if you decide to use any of the techniques or systems mentioned here, you should read more about the technique in question, and discuss your plans in detail with someone with experience of using statistical g a research ng and sample tative and qualitative research ative data from @ative research methods & is is more than gh one important feature in is the coding function, also at we whole-heartedly support the statement that “analysis is more than coding”. Software is simply a tool that supports the data analysis process by helping you to find what you are looking for, to retrieve data in all kinds of ways, to help you think and to work with your data. What cannot help you with is to decide on the overall approach that you want to use for your analysis. Analysis approaches and their suitability for a caqdas based phical research / life history sational rse analysis / critical discourse ive hermeneutics. About method and ing to the academic literature, it should be your research question that is guiding this decision. Furthermore, not everyone who has the need for analyzing qualitative data is conducting an academic research project that requires more thorough thinking regarding knowledge generation. A simple analysis of themes and quick access to the data by themes is all that is needed. The question which theoretical research tradition one should follow, and subsequently which methodology and method to choose is not so important. Certain techniques and procedures that guide them in gathering and analyzing data related to their research questions and ology as compared to the term ‘methods’ refers to the strategy, the plan and action, the process or design lying behind the choice and use of a particular method. Analysis methods derived from these various frameworks are statistical procedures, theme identification, constant comparison, document analysis, content analysis, or cognitive mapping. Gt may also be classified as method, if understood and used as a series of you may wonder what type of techniques and procedures for analyzing qualitative data have been described, here are a few:Close reading of a text, becoming immersed in the data, reading and re-reading a text, taking notes, reflecting on the data and writing down tial text interpretation, taking a closer look at only a few text or data passages, engaging in thought experiments and developing possible story lines considering different contexts, discussing possible data interpretations with a group of other researchers and coming to an agreement after intense discussions. Conclusions are reached through discursive analysis of embodied lived experience before empirical data are collected via self-inspection and reflection of own experience. This is considered necessary as all empirical data are regarded as being reductions and : coding in qualitative research means to assign a word or a phrase that summarizes a section of language-based or visual data.
Can be derived from the above is that they are many different methods to analyze qualitative data and coding is only one of them. The analysis of embodied lived experience for instance is rooted in phenomenology and phenomenologists forego coding of data all together. Researchers following the interpretivist paradigm where the above listed sequential analyses techniques belong to even perceive coding as an abhorrent incompatible act for data analysis. And for them caqdas packages like do not help them in pursuing their particular form of analysis. What we will however see later, researchers from these traditions still use as a tool for data management. Coding as method for you decide that coding is an appropriate method to approach the analysis of your data, there is still a lot to learn. You either have a good teacher at your side, with whom you can discuss your ongoing analysis, or you learn yourself via experience and with time through a process of trial and error what works and what does not work – like finally managing to prepare your first perfect both cases, you will learn to appreciate the software features that allow you to retrieve and to review data, to modify boundaries of coded segments, to rename, to merge or to split codes, to provide spaces forwriting, spaces for you to reflect on the data, spaces to “play” with the data, to rearrange it in different ways, to visualize them – these are all features that support the analysis process and that help the user to immerse in the data, trying to grasps its meaning. Results can be saved in various forms as a basis for new queries, for instance supporting researchers in identifying types and typologies in the , analysis is more than coding and still largely dependent on the person sitting in front of the computer using thesoftware me end this section with a quote from the manual:When iasked anselm strauss back in 1996 to contribute a foreword to the manual of the first version of , i was extremely happy heagreed. As i have no idea how his attitude and his decision would betoday, i decided not to include the original foreword, except for thefollowing quotation which, i promise, will remain true for some time tocome:“… the program author makes no claims whatever to havingproduced a program that will perform miracles for your research –you still have to have the ideas and the gifts to do exceptionalresearch. Analysis approaches and the suitability for caqdas based the next section an overview of various analysis approaches is will find pointers whether caqdas is a useful choice and where researchers have used it for data organization and management only. References to studies that employed are also research consists of a family of research methodologies. The aim is to promote change by engaging participants in a process of sharing contains among other elements also components of field research. Biographical research / life history phical research is an approach to research which elicits and analyses a person’s biography or life history. The steps of data analysis involve thematic analysis, the reconstruction of the life history, a microanalysis of individual text segments, contrastive comparisons and the development of types and contrasting comparison of several cases. Also unger (2009), a student of schütze, works with to support particular parts of the analysis process. Conversational sational analysis or ca is the study of naturally occurring talk-in-interaction, both verbal and non-verbal, in order to discover how we produce an orderly social world. Typically data are subjected to afine-grained sequential analysis based on a sophisticated form of transcription. In addition to sequential analysis, coding approaches have also been used in recent years for identifying recurrent themes. The use of coding in conversational analysis however is questioned as an appropriate form of analysis by some.
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Thus, would not be a natural choice when embarking on a fine grained ca analysis of score transcripts. Discourse analysis / critical discourse rse analysis (da) and critical discourse analysis (cda) both encompass a number of approaches to study the world, society, events and psyche as they are produced in the use of language, discourse, writing, talk, conversation or communicative events. It is generally agreed upon that any explicit method in discourse studies, the humanities and social sciences may be used in cda research, as long as it is able to adequately and relevantly produce insights into the way discourse reproduces (or resists) social and political inequality. They used for an analysis of online focus groups within a discourse analytical ough, norman (2003). S where was employed as a tool:Ethnography is a multi-method qualitative approachthat studies people in their naturally occurring settings. An example where was used for analysis is a study by hernández and rené (2009) and the online ethnography of greschke (2007). The aim is to discover the methods and rules of social action that people use in their everyday life. Important for an ethnomethodological analysis is self-reflection and the inspectability of data, thus the reader of an ethnomethodological study should be able to inspect the original data as means to evaluate any claim made by the analyst. Steps in the process of data analysis include coding by type of discourse, counting frequencies of types of discourses, selecting the main types and checking for deviant cases. London: research examines the personal meanings of individuals’ experiences and actions in the context of their social and cultural environment. Its methodological roots are in phenomenology, social interactionism and ethnographyadapted by business studies and marketing research, but also used in other disciplines like medical research. Analysis procedures consist of description, ordering or coding of data and displaying summaries of the data. Nia parson (2005) for example used field research methodology and in her dissertation study: gendered suffering and social transformations: domestic violence, dictatorship and democracy in , carol a. Guide to qualitative field s where was employed as a tool:A focus group is a form of group interviewmainly used in marketing research. Krueger & casey (2000) describe the analysis cutting, pasting, sorting, arranging and rearranging data through comparing and contrasting the relevant information; thus a classical code & retrieve approach and they recommend the use of caqdas for the analysis process. An example where was used for an analysis of focus group is the study by walsh et al (2008). The free s where was employed as a tool:Frame analysis has generally been attributed to the work of erving goffman and his 1974 book: frame analysis: an essay on the organization of experience. When it comes to analyzing the data, a quantitative and a qualitative approach has been suggested. In quantitative studies the keyword approach is used extracting frames by means of hierarchical cluster or factor analysis.
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Frame analysis: propaganda plays of the woman suffrage movement: an essay on the organization of experience. European journal of communication 19 (3) ed theory (gt) is an inductive form of qualitative research that was first introduced by glaser and strauss(1967). It is a research approach in which the theory is developed from the data, rather than the other way collection and analysis are consciously combined, and initial data analysis is used to shape continuing data collection. Sociological research has been greatly influenced by grounded theory and the method of coding based constant comparison and the theoretical sampling strategy is widely accepted. As coding is central for a grounded theory analysis, caqdas is well suited to support such an analytic approach, apart maybe for the glaser version of gt. Today hermeneutics is also used as a strategy to address a broad range of research questions like interpreting human practices,events, and situations. Researchers bring their personal conviction to the analysis, but they need to be open for revision. The researcher’s concept of the whole is corrected as each interpretation is compared against the parts of the text. In order to achieve this, a number of data typesare employed like document analysis, interviews, standardized surveys or observant participation. The latter means that the researcher goes into the social “field” and tries to get as close as possible to the linguistic and habitual customs of the people examined. The aim of the analysis is to gain insights into a person’s understanding of the meaning ofevents in their transcription, narratives may be coded according to categories deemed theoretically important by the researcher (riesman, 1993). Another approach is a formal sequential analysis with the purpose of identifying recurrent and regular forms which are then related to specific modes of biographical experiences. An example where is used is the research by de gregorio (2009) on narrating ive analysis can however also be conducted using quantitative methods (qna). Similar as in ethnomethodology, personal motives and intentions are not analysis follows a strict sequential pattern and is usually conducted by a group of researchers, the “interpretation circle”. The opening sentence, different story lines are developed and discussed by the team of researchers. The story lines can beviewed as preliminary hypotheses that in the process of analysiscan be falsified when inspecting more of the empirical method is very time-consuming and thus only feasible with small amounts of text. 5, enography is a fairly new qualitative research method developed in the mid to late 1970s. The focus is on variation in both the perceptions of the phenomenon as experienced by the actor and in the “ways of seeing something”, as experienced and described by the researcher. Thus, the use of caqdas appears to be a feasible tool for phenomenographic analysis as well as put into practice by boon, johnston and webber (2007).
They used to analyze faculty’s conceptions of information literacy within a phenomenographical research framework. Ative data ative data analysis ative research methods & is is more than gh one important feature in is the coding function, also at we whole-heartedly support the statement that “analysis is more than coding”.